The Journey of Paper: From Ancient Invention to Modern Necessity

The Rule of Paper

Paper allows all kinds of specifications and abstractions for our understanding of the world, life, and beyond. It encompasses paper money, prayers imprinted on paper, talismans written on paper, secrets kept on paper, history documented on paper, and maps drawn out on it. Our emotions and knowledge are poured out on paper by scholars, poets, writers, scientists, and everyday individuals.

How did such a perishable object become the keeper of everything valuable to us? Many historians conclude that the Industrial Revolution and Renaissance could not have occurred without the invention of paper. In a reciprocal way, one could argue that paper arose from the felt needs of a society that was creating these monumental changes.

History and Evolution of Paper

Hu Han Shu, the official Chinese history of the late Han rule, states that a Eunuch named Cai Lun, a servant of the Han Dynasty, first made paper in 105 BCE. Cai Lun is credited with pulping together the bark of trees, waste material from hemp, fishing nets, and old clothes to create paper. For centuries, paper-making remained a closely guarded secret of the Chinese emperors, who wanted to keep this technology to themselves. Although Cai Lun tragically committed suicide due to palace intrigues, he earned a place in the hearts of the people, who even hung pictures of him in their homes. Later archaeological finds revealed that instances of paper production existed even before Cai Lun in remote central China.

The Birth of Paper Currency

The celebrated Venetian traveler Marco Polo wrote about the evolution of paper money in 12th century China. Paper money began to be printed in the eleventh century. In China, fifty ounces of silver equated to paper money worth a thousand ounces of silk. Initially, the over-issuing of paper money led to inflation in Chinese society. While China and the Mongol kingdom of Kublai Khan adopted paper currency, Europe remained unaware of this revolutionary change.

Predecessors of Paper: Papyrus and Pergamum

Before the invention of paper, many civilizations created materials similar to paper for writing. The Sumerians, who lived around 3300 BCE between Babylon and the Persian Gulf, used clay tablets as their first known writing medium. They inscribed simple shapes of lines and circles on stone and pressed these shapes onto clay tablets to keep accounts of goods exchanged and transported. Historians refer to these inscriptions as cuneiforms.

Papyrus, made from the stems of certain river grasses, served as a writing surface for Egyptians. The oldest papyrus scroll dates back to between 2900 BCE and 2775 BCE. Parchment, originally known as Pergamum, improved upon papyrus. It was made from treated animal hide and named after the Greek city where it was first produced. In India and Sri Lanka, people wrote on palm leaves, while the Chinese initially used cloth and bamboo before refining their paper-making technology.

The Arab Discovery of Paper

Arabs learned the technology of paper-making from the Chinese, bringing it to the rest of the world in the ninth century. Once paper entered the Arab world, it set off a wave of fast industrialization. Arab society had already excelled in various fields such as architecture, mathematics, and astronomy, and paper became a valuable tool for preserving that knowledge. The first paper mill is believed to have been established in Baghdad.

The European Encounter with Paper

In the 12th century, paper-making made its way to Europe. Spain, ruled by Arabs, produced paper from old clothes. Europe's first encounter with this miraculous object came through Spain. The church in Western Europe feared that writing on paper was pagan art and even banned its use among believers. They believed that animal parchment, used for writing until then, was the only worthy material for sacred texts. The lack of literacy in Europe delayed the adoption of paper by about 1000 years after its invention in China.

Once printing technology emerged in the 15th century, all caution and reservations faded. Paper began its historic journey of conquest across continents and seas. The method of paper-making that Cai Lun developed still exists today. Handmade paper is produced using the same basic technology that he experimented with, where unwanted paper is pulped and then formed into a thin layer using a wooden screen.

Gutenberg and the Printing Revolution

Johannes Gensfleisch Zur Laden zum Gutenberg lived in Strasbourg during the 15th century, under the Roman Empire. He invented movable type printing, triggering a printing revolution that transformed humanity. A goldsmith by trade, Gutenberg excelled in metalwork and made a fortune selling mirrors to pilgrims visiting Aachen, where Christian relics were displayed. Amidst his successes and misfortunes, he refined printing technology and began printing indulgences for the church, offering pardons for sins in exchange for money to fight pagan attacks.

Gutenberg's next significant step was to print the Bible, tapping into the popular demand for this sacred text. The Bible printed on paper spread widely, earning a permanent place in households everywhere.

The Americas and the Independent Invention of Paper

In North America, the Aztecs invented paper independently of the Chinese and Arab worlds. In 1502, Hernan Cortez, the Spanish conquistador, discovered that the Aztec natives had their own paper-making technology and religious books. Throughout human history, there are nine instances of independent paper invention in different parts of the world, occurring in isolation from one another.

From Luxury to Everyday Use

Initially, the high cost of paper production made it a coveted luxury that only the wealthy could afford. It became more affordable only with the invention of steam engines, which enabled factory-grade paper production from wood. When paper was expensive, it was primarily used for religious and legal purposes, giving it an aura of sacredness and authority.

Even as paper became commonplace, some of that old reverence seems to have lingered. Paper's diverse uses have transformed human life in ways that are now beyond our comprehension. Somewhere in the middle of the Pacific or Atlantic Ocean, explorers might have gazed at the lines drawn on paper, wondering if the winds would guide them safely to unknown lands. In a Catholic countryside, a child might have opened a holy Bible printed on paper, reading, "In the beginning, God created the Heaven and the Earth," standing in awe of the cosmos. A map and the Bible symbolize the invaluable contributions of paper to humanity.

The Environmental Impact of Paper

Large industrial units that manufacture paper often use chemicals to whiten it. One significant environmental issue caused by paper factories is pollution, exacerbated by the exploitation of water sources. Paper-making is a water-intensive process, and the deforestation for raw materials further complicates the situation. Recycling paper is one effective way to mitigate these environmental problems.

Paper Art and Cultural Significance in Asia

Paper holds a special place in Asian cultures, particularly in China and Japan. Buddhist and Confucian literature was among the first major knowledge streams preserved on paper in China. During the Tang dynasty (618-907 CE), a color code was established for different types of paper: white for legal documents, blue for temple communications, and yellow for official documents. Some rudimentary forms of paper money were also in use during this period.

As a means of communication with the divine, the Chinese print images of gods on paper using wood blocks. These paper gods, known as Shenma, are mounted on walls inside homes or burned during certain festivals. This practice has persisted in rural China for centuries.

The Future of Paper in a Digital Age

As the internet increasingly takes over the roles once held by paper, we must ask: are we nearing the end of paper's reign? While communication, books, accounts, maps, and legal documents have rapidly migrated online, sacred religious texts seem reluctant to make the leap. No priest is yet seen reading their Bible or Gita from a computer inside a place of worship. Will these sacred texts be the last bastion of paper?

In conclusion, paper has journeyed from a luxury item to a mundane necessity, shaping human history in profound ways. It is essential to recognize its environmental impact and explore sustainable practices to ensure that this remarkable invention continues to serve us responsibly.

References

Did Marco Polo Go to China?, Frances Wood, 1998.

Marco Polo’s China: A Venetian in the Realm of Khubilai Khan, Stephen G. Haw, 2006.

Papermaking: The History and Technique of an Ancient Art, Dard Hunter, 1978. https://www.google.co.in/books/edition/Papermaking/1sEp3rtK994C?hl=en&gbpv=0

Paper in Ancient China, Mark Cartwright, https://www.worldhistory.org/article/1120/paper-in-ancient-china/

Sacred Paper: Northern Chinese Paper Gods, edspace.american.edu

The Written World, Martin Puchner, 2017, Granta Publications, London.